The American Revolutionary War is considered one of the most decisive times in history, leading to the formation of a world power. It remains no surprise that well known heroes such as George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Benjamin Franklin have emerged from this period. But we so often forget about the more ordinary men and women that significantly impacted the war.
John Adams once remarked that “New York, without exaggeration is the pivot in which the entire Revolutionary War turns.” Both the British and Continental sides of the Revolutionary War would certainly agree upon this, even if not on much else. After the British forces took control of the city in 1776, New York became General George Washington’s primary target. Washington was stuck in Connecticut and New Jersey, left speculating about what might be the redcoats’ next move to take back their colonies and their people. But going up against the strongest empire in the world at the time meant that no ordinary warfare would deliver the city back into Continental control.
During the time of the American Revolutionary War, spy work was highly frowned upon. Most spies were considered mercenaries, selling their work to whoever had the most gold coins. Because of this, espionage was not a gentleman’s trade. Washington was well aware of his need for resources in the city to spy on the British armies and inform him of any potential movement. The typical mercenary spy would not do for this project, for they would certainly turn to the highest bidder: His Majesty’s Royal Army. But disguised Continental soldiers also would not do. As seen in the case of Nathan Hale, a soldier stood out too much and did not fit into a community in the manner required of a spy.
Washington and his men were therefore faced with the difficulty of finding people in New York who were loyal to the Patriot cause, who had access to and means to transmit information, and who were willing to potentially give up their lives for the career of spying. Although he originally opposed the idea of employing spies in favor of more traditional scouting methods, Washington was soon convinced otherwise after seeing the success of the Culper Spy Ring.
Most modern scholarship that looks at colonial espionage studies a higher tier of elite spies, those who worked in European palaces decoding royal messages or those such as Nathan Hale, Yale graduate and member of the upper class. But some of the most influential spies of the American Revolutionary War were those who were by all measures “normal”: a farmer, a small business owner, a whaler. Those such as the folks who comprised the Culper Spy Ring.
Developed from a group of childhood friends and acquaintances, the Culper Ring emerged around 1778. When the ring was fully developed, messages started in New York, sent from Robert Townsend, or his alias Samuel Culper, Jr, who lived and worked in New York City. He wrote for the Royal Gazette newspaper and owned the adjoining store. A courier, Austin Roe posed as a customer in Townsend’s store and collected messages from him. He would then ride on horseback to carry transmissions from New York City to Setauket, Long Island. When Abraham Woodhull received the message, he would add any notes or observances of his own. Woodhull, known by Samuel Culper, was a meek cabbage farmer from Long Island. He also sometimes traveled to the city under the pretense of visiting his sister, who resided there. Caleb Brewster would pick up the message and carry it to Connecticut, adding any British movements he could spot from the Long Island Sound. Lieutenant Brewster worked as a whaler in the Sound and transported messages between the states with the help of his whaling crew. Finally, the message would reach the mastermind of the Culper Spy Ring, Major Benjamin Tallmadge, who would finally deliver the message to Washington, also adding observances of his own and decoding the letters under the alias John Bolton. At the time of the ring’s formation, he was a captain in the Continental Army, but was later promoted to Major and given the title of Head of Intelligence. The Yale graduate was the only elite member of the Culper network, but his role in the ring, passing messages along to General George Washington, lends itself to his class in society. Once this system was fully developed, it would take messages less than a week to be delivered. Washington insisted that “The shorter the line of communication, so much the better.”
The Culper Spy Ring also used several methods to protect themselves. First, they developed a codebook. After perusing Webster’s Dictionary for words that could prove decisive, Tallmadge assigned a three-digit combination to each word to hide their messages’ true meanings. Each member of the ring also had their own numeric code that paired with their alias. Washington was 711, for example, British General Clinton was 712, and Woodhull (aka Samuel Culper) was 722. By assigning numbers only to relevant words, he greatly reduced the possibility of the code being cracked. Tallmadge also assigned a basic cipher to the alphabet in which you exchange an “a” for “e”, “b” for “f”, “c” for “g”, and so on, to be used for important words that did not have a number assigned to them. Altogether, he created a 710 word codebook, with an additional fifty-two names and locations.
The Culpers also had use of invisible ink, or a “sympathetic stain” as Washington dubbed the substance. The ink remained invisible when on fresh, pure white paper. To make the message visible, the reader would apply a fine powder to the document, making the ink a green color that developed further into a brown over time. The Culpers would send ordinary business ledgers, letters, and books to each other, including invisible information between the lines of seemingly unimportant documents.
To further protect themselves, none of the Culpers knew everyone’s true identities. Benjamin Tallmadge did not know Culper Junior’s [Robert Townsend’s] true identity, all he was aware of was that he lived in New York City and provided reliable information. Abraham Woodhull did not know the name of Austin Roe, all he knew was the face of the young man who brought letters from the city. Even George Washington refused to be told the real names of the men who worked for him. In case of capture and torture for information, no single member of the Culper spy network could reveal the entirety of it.
Of course even with the Culpers’ unique development and covert methods they still faced considerable challenges and dangers. Robert Townsend especially faced great risks in New York City. In his store, he frequently had British military customers, who needed supplies to feed, clothe, and shelter troops. A prominent newspaper such as the Royal Gazette would also see many redcoats coming through its doors. Besides that, even just in everyday life, walking the streets of the city, one would see many British soldiers out and about. On several occasions, Townsend voiced his concerns and anxieties over safety and the success of the spy network. Eventually, the danger grew to be so great that Townsend withdrew from the spy ring. Woodhull wrote in November 1780 that due to the “watchfullness of the Enemy Several of our dear freinds, were imprisoned, In particular one that hath bene ever Servicable to this corespondence, This Step So dejected the Spirits of [Culper Junior] that he resolved to leave [New York] for a time, I earnestly endevourd to prevent it but Could not (sic).”
The Culper Spy Ring also faced troubles on Long Island. During the Revolution, Long Island was occupied by the British and therefore swarming with soldiers who lived with towns’ residents. On April 21, 1779, Tallmadge mentioned to Washington that “[Woodhull] had finished the enclosed [letter] when very suddenly two Persons broke into the Room (his private apartment)—The Consideration of having several Officers quartered in the next Chamber, added to his constant fear of detection & its certain Consequences made him rationally conclude that he was suspected.” The persons turned out to be Woodhull’s mischievous nieces, but the risk was still very present. Caleb Brewster said in a letter from August 1780 that “Setalket is full of Troops” and that Austin Roe “Told Me I had best Not Come on to the Middel of Next Weak as the Tro[ops] is Sow thick in Town [sic].” Robert Townsend’s family on Long Island hosted a British colonel at their home. In one instance, he traveled to Woodhull’s family home in Setauket, whereupon not finding Abraham at home (he was in New York City at the time) ordered his father beaten to send a message to Abraham.
But with these great risks also came great accomplishments. One of the Culper Ring’s major discoveries was revealing a plot to counterfeit continental currency. The British were planning to counterfeit paper dollars, therefore increasing inflation of the American dollar. The dollar was already worth very little compared to the British pounds sterling and many merchants in larger cities refused to accept the Continental dollar because of this. If the British were able to successfully counterfeit American money, the increase would cause high inflation, rendering this currency virtually useless, meaning the Continental Congress would be unable to continue to fund the war. Townsend says in a letter dated November of 1779, “that of the currency I am afraid will prove true, for [the British] are indefatigable in increasing the quantity of it. Several reams of paper made for the last emission struck by Congress have been procured from Philadelphia.” This letter was sent through the Culper network, reached Washington and was forwarded to Congress, who then changed the currency, leaving the British with several reams of now worthless paper.
Another significant discovery made by the Culper Ring was an attack being planned against the French. On July 20th, 1780, the Compte de Rochambeau arrived with a fleet of French ships in Newport, Rhode Island. The British were planning to attack the newly landed French ships, who were already disoriented after months at sea. A letter sent from Tallmadge to Washington reveals that the Culper Ring had something to do with the discovery of the information. The letter says that in case it would not reach Washington in time, Tallmadge also sent a copy to Major General Heath, who was further east than Washington. Unfortunately, the original letter written in invisible ink by Robert Townsend has been lost, but Abraham Woodhull clearly tells us of its importance. On July 20th, 1780, he hastily wrote to Brewster: “The enclosed [from Townsend] requires your immediate departure this day by all means let not an hour pass for this day must not be lost you have news of the greatest consequence perhaps that ever happened to your country.” Woodhull paraphrased Townsend’s warning in a letter to Benjamin Tallmadge on the same date that “Admiral Graves with six ships of the line have arrived and are joined by three more out of New York [and] has sailed for Rhode Island” where the French had landed. Had the British been able to attack the French, the French likely would have withdrawn support from the Americans, possibly resulting in the loss of the war.
Finally, the most important development made by the Culper Spy Ring was that of exposing Benedict Arnold’s plot to turn West Point over to British General John Andre. Andre, on his way to meet Arnold, was captured by American militiamen. Arnold had told Colonel Jameson (Benjamin Tallmadge’s commanding officer) that he was expecting a visitor named John Anderson (an alias often used by Andre) coming from British lines and here Jameson had a John Anderson who said he was traveling to British lines. Caught carrying incriminating evidence, Tallmadge immediately suspected Andre of espionage. Arnold ordered Andre to be delivered to him at West Point and said that Tallmadge was welcome to come along as well. Arnold, no doubt, was hoping that he could deliver the American head of intelligence straight into the hands of the British. It was Tallmadge who convinced his Colonel Jameson that this order should not be followed and Arnold narrowly escaped.
After Benedict Arnold defected to the British, the stakes were high for the Culpers. None of them knew how much Arnold knew about the spies and whatever he did know, he would not hesitate to tell his new British superiors. Culper Jr remarked in a letter that “I am happy to think that Arnold does not know my name…I was not much surprised at his conduct, for it was no more than I expected of him.” What they were more disappointed by was the execution of John Andre in early October 1780. Culper Jr said that he “never felt more sensibly for the death of a person whom I knew only by sight, and had heard converse, than I did for Major Andre, He was a most amiable character.”
By looking at the Culper Spy Ring’s development, risks, and accomplishments, we can easily see the impact it had on the American Revolutionary War. We might even wonder how the war might have changed if it was not for these men and women and their sacrifices and discoveries. Risking their lives and livelihoods, the members of the Culper Spy Ring too frequently go unnoticed. These men and women were prepared to give the ultimate sacrifice for their country even though they would never receive recognition for their work. When looking at the American Revolutionary War, we hear about great men like George Washington and Nathanael Greene and we far too often overlook the accomplishments of the more everyday people like Abraham Woodhull, Robert Townsend, Austin Roe, and Caleb Brewster, who sacrificed safety and security for their country and a cause they believed in.
MaryBeth Ames 